How Housing Instability Affects Children’s Health and Development

Research shows the quality of our homes matters. Quality can refer to several factors, including adequate space, noise levels, or other indicators of investment. Safe, stable, healthy homes promote better educational, health, and economic outcomes. This is especially true for the youngest generation.

A growing body of evidence in developmental psychology and neuroscience shows how much housing stability and quality affects child development and health—both immediately and for years to come. As these insights begin to gain traction, they highlight breakthroughs that position investments in housing as an investment in future generations.

Children are especially vulnerable to housing instability from birth to age 5

Psychological research suggests early childhood is a critical time for a child’s development, coining it a “sensitive period.” Between birth and age 5, the human brain absorbs information at an incredibly fast rate and is most receptive to experiences and environmental influences. As a result, experiences at this time have a disproportionate impact on the long-term development and health of a person, illustrating how early investments can critically shape long-term outcomes.

This highlights the critical role of housing in development. Although adolescence is also considered a sensitive period, children in their early years spend a majority of their time in their homes, emphasizing the need at this age for healthy, stable environments to thrive (PDF). This makes children especially vulnerable to housing insecurity or unexpected or unwanted environmental change.

The following emerging research highlights the negative effects housing instability has on children’s health, development, and well-being and how stable, high-quality early environments and experiences may shape outcomes.

• A longitudinal study analyzing adolescent health outcomes found teens who had experienced housing insecurity—measured through factors such as missed rent payments and evictions—in infancy were more likely to report worse adolescent health outcomes, including depression and anxiety and reduced overall health scores, than those who were stably housed. At age 15, adolescents who had experienced stable housing had better self-reported health and less depression and anxiety than those who had experienced unstable housing during childhood.
• A study assessing the relationship between housing stability and children’s health care access found that housing instability—characterized by difficulty paying rent, being evicted, and living in overcrowded conditions—was associated with postponed medical care, postponed medications, and increased emergency department visits, highlighting housing instability as a predisposing factor to poor access to care for children living in low-income families.
• A study examining chaos and uncertainty in children’s lives found that factors of environmental uncertainty, such as heightened volatility in the housing market and economic instability, are tied to poor health and developmental outcomes for children. These stressors, conceptualized as environmental chaos, put strain on both parents and children, undermining physical, socio-emotional, and cognitive well-being.
• A longitudinal study that explored the influence of housing conditions from birth on school readiness of children entering kindergarten found that children exposed to lower housing quality and underresourced neighborhoods had lower kindergarten readiness scores.
• Research found infants in families experiencing homelessness are more likely to develop physical health problems, including respiratory problems and low birth weight, when compared with infants in housed families. Children exposed to unstable housing had more frequent adverse childhood experiences, putting them at higher risk of such problems. The associations persist for many years, leading to many diagnoses and emergency room visits through age 6.
• Research has shown that stress or extreme disruption during childhood can be a precursor to chronic disease in adulthood. Scientific consensus in developmental biology and neurobiology is emerging that shows adversity faced in developmental sensitive periods can be permanently incorporated into regulatory physiological processes, so poor adult health can be viewed as the latent outcome of experiences from critical periods.
• Studies exploring eviction’s effects on child outcomes suggest losing housing can lead to children being forced to change schools, a transition that’s proven to be very disruptive. Frequent school changes because of evictions or housing instability can lead to missed class time, difficulty establishing peer relationships, and challenges readjusting to new environments, which can affect both academic performance and emotional well-being.

The costs of housing instability for young children

Research shows investments in high-quality, stable housing for children is not only important for long-term health but is also cost-effective. A 2016 study found families with children experiencing housing instability accrued $8 billion in avoidable health care and education costs. This was projected to cost the United States $111 billion in health and education expenditures over the next decade.

How can policymakers support children in their critical periods?

This emerging research highlights the critical importance of investing in children in their early years to ensure future generations of Americans are healthy and fully able to participate in society. Such investments can yield significant benefits, both economically and socially, by creating a generation capable of strengthening their communities.

The benefits of housing stability on children’s health and development underscore the need for policies that will promote stable and affordable housing, such as the following.

• Increase the supply of affordable, high-quality housing for families. Research shows there’s often a lack of larger-unit multifamily developments in the housing market. The overwhelming majority of new units are studios or 1–2 bedroom apartments, not units built with families and children in mind. With fewer larger apartments on the market, families have fewer affordable options in cities. Encouraging the development of multifamily and single-family affordable housing can support children.
• Expand vouchers for families with low incomes who have children. Today, only one-quarter of the many families with children experiencing housing instability receive rental assistance. Research suggests housing vouchers have a range of effects including reducing burdens on low-income households, minimizing risk of homelessness, and increasing children’s academic performance.
• Fund emergency rental assistance and rapid re-housing. These policies can help keep families in their homes when experiencing housing instability or homelessness. Housing search services, short-term financial assistance, and case management services all help families stabilize in housing as quickly as possible, and evidence suggests that after using these services, most families don’t experience homelessness again.

Addressing housing insecurity may not only improve immediate living conditions of vulnerable families but could also foster long-term health benefits that ripple through communities. Investing in housing early is the most proactive and cost-effective way to build healthier societies.